Sigmund Freud Believed That Early Family Relationships Shape an Individualã¢â‚¬â„¢s Personality.

Chapter two. Introduction to Major Perspectives

2.two Psychodynamic Psychology

Jennifer Walinga

Learning Objectives

1. Empathize some of the psychological forces underlying homo behaviour.
2. Identify levels of consciousness.
3. Critically talk over diverse models and theories of psychodynamic and behavioural psychology.
4. Empathize the concept of psychological types and identify applications and examples in daily life.

Sigmund Freud

The psychodynamic perspective in psychology proposes that there are psychological forces underlying homo behaviour, feelings, and emotions. Psychodynamics originated with Sigmund Freud (Figure two.5) in the belatedly 19th century, who suggested that psychological processes are flows of psychological energy (libido) in a complex brain. In response to the more reductionist approach of biological, structural, and functional psychology movements, the psychodynamic perspective marks a pendulum swing back toward more than holistic, systemic, and abstruse concepts and their influence on the more concrete behaviours and deportment. Freud'south theory of psychoanalysis assumes that much of mental life is unconscious, and that past experiences, especially in early childhood, shape how a person feels and behaves throughout life.

Effigy 2.5 Group Photo. Front row (left to right): Sigmund Freud, Thou. Stanley Hall, Carl Jung; Back row (left to right): Abraham A. Brill, Ernest Jones, Sándor Ferenczi.

Consciousness is the awareness of the self in space and time. It tin be defined as human awareness of both internal and external stimuli. Researchers study states of human consciousness and differences in perception in order to empathize how the body works to produce conscious awareness. Consciousness varies in both arousal and content, and there are two types of conscious experience: astounding, or in the moment, and access, which recalls experiences from retention.

Showtime appearing in the historical records of the ancient Mayan and Incan civilizations, various theories of multiple levels of consciousness have pervaded spiritual, psychological, medical, and moral speculations in both Eastern and Western cultures. The ancient Mayans were amid the first to suggest an organized sense of each level of consciousness, its purpose, and its temporal connectedness to humankind. Because consciousness incorporates stimuli from the environment also as internal stimuli, the Mayans believed it to be the most basic form of existence, capable of evolution. The Incas, still, considered consciousness to be a progression, not only of awareness but of business organisation for others as well.

Sigmund Freud divided human consciousness into three levels of awareness: the conscious, preconscious, and unconscious. Each of these levels corresponds to and overlaps with Freud's ideas of the id, ego, and superego. The conscious level consists of all those things nosotros are aware of, including things that we know about ourselves and our surroundings. The preconscious consists of those things we could pay conscious attention to if we so desired, and where many memories are stored for like shooting fish in a barrel retrieval. Freud saw the preconscious every bit those thoughts that are unconscious at the particular moment in question, but that are non repressed and are therefore bachelor for recall and easily capable of condign conscious (e.g., the "tip of the tongue" effect). The unconscious consists of those things that are outside of conscious awareness, including many memories, thoughts, and urges of which we are non aware. Much of what is stored in the unconscious is thought to be unpleasant or conflicting; for instance, sexual impulses that are accounted "unacceptable." While these elements are stored out of our awareness, they are nevertheless thought to influence our behaviour.

Figure 2.6  The Levels of Consciousness.

Figure 2.6  illustrates the respective levels of id, ego, and superego. In this diagram, the bright blue line represents the divide between consciousness (above) and unconsciousness (below). Beneath this line, but higher up the id, is the preconscious level. The everyman segment is the unconscious.  Like the ego, the superego has witting and unconscious elements, while the id is completely unconscious. When all three parts of the personality are in dynamic equilibrium, the private is thought to be mentally salubrious. However if the ego is unable to mediate between the id and the superego, an imbalance occurs in the course of psychological distress.

While Freud'south theory remains one of the best known, various schools within the field of psychology have developed their ain perspectives. For case:

• Developmental psychologists view consciousness not as a single entity, but every bit a developmental process with potential higher stages of cerebral, moral, and spiritual quality.
• Social psychologists view consciousness as a product of cultural influence having little to do with the individual.
• Neuropsychologists view consciousness every bit ingrained in neural systems and organic brain structures.
• Cognitive psychologists base of operations their understanding of consciousness on computer science.

Near psychodynamic approaches use talk therapy, orpsychoanalysis, to examine maladaptive functions that developed early in life and are, at least in part, unconscious. Psychoanalysis is a type of analysis that involves attempting to affect behavioural change through having patients talk about their difficulties. Practising psychoanalysts today collect their data in much the same way every bit Freud did, through case studies, simply often without the burrow. The analyst listens and observes, gathering information about the patient. Psychoanalytic scientists today also collect data in formal laboratory experiments, studying groups of people in more restricted, controlled ways (Cramer, 2000; Westen, 1998).

Carl Jung

Carl Jung (1875-1961) expanded on Freud'due south theories, introducing the concepts of the archetype, the collective unconscious, and individuation — or the psychological process of integrating the opposites, including the witting with the unconscious, while withal maintaining their relative autonomy (Figure 2.7). Jung focused less on infantile development and disharmonize between the id and superego, and more on integration betwixt different parts of the person.

Figure 2.7  Jung'southward Theory.

The following are Jung'southward concepts that are still prevalent today:

Active imagination: This refers to activating our imaginal processes in waking life in order to tap into the unconscious meanings of our symbols.

Archetypes: These primordial images reflect basic patterns or universal themes common to us all and that are present in the unconscious. These symbolic images exist exterior infinite and fourth dimension. Examples are the shadow, counterinsurgency, anima, the old wise person, and the innocent child. There are also nature archetypes, like burn, ocean, river, mountain.

1. Animais the archetype symbolizing the unconscious female component of the male psyche. Tendencies or qualities often idea of as feminine.
2. Animusis the archetype symbolizing the unconscious male person component of the female psyche. Tendencies or qualities often thought of as masculine.
3. Selfis the archetype symbolizing the totality of the personality. It represents the striving for unity, wholeness, and integration.
4. Personais the mask or image a person presents to the earth. It is designed to brand a particular impression on others, while concealing a person'south true nature.
5. Shadowis the side of a personality that a person does not consciously brandish in public. It may have positive or negative qualities.
6. Dreams are specific expressions of the unconscious that take a definite, purposeful structure indicating an underlying thought or intention. The general function of dreams is to restore a person's total psychic equilibrium.
7. Complexesare usually unconscious and repressed emotionally toned symbolic cloth that is incompatible with consciousness. Complexes can cause constant psychological disturbances and symptoms of neurosis. With intervention, they tin can become conscious and greatly reduced in their impact.

Individuation:  Jung believed that a man is inwardly whole, simply that most people have lost impact with important parts of themselves. Through listening to the messages of our dreams and waking imagination, we tin contact and reintegrate our different parts. The goal of life is individuation, which is the process of integrating the conscious with the unconscious, synergizing the many components of the psyche. Jung asserted: "Trust that which gives yous meaning and accept it every bit your guide" (Jung, 1951, p. iii). Each human being has a specific nature and calling uniquely his or her own, and unless these are fulfilled through a wedlock of conscious and unconscious, the person can get sick. Today, the term "individuation" is used in the media industry to draw new printing and online technologies that permit "mass customization" of media (newspaper, online, tv) and then that its contents lucifer each private user's unique interests, shifting from the mass media practice of producing the aforementioned contents for all readers, viewers, listeners, or online users (Chen, Wang, & Tseng, 2009). Marshall McLuhan, the communications theorist, alluded to this tendency in customization when discussing the future of printed books in an electronically interconnected world (McLuhan & Nevitt, 1972).

Mandala: For Jung, the mandala (which is the Sanskrit word for "circle") was a symbol of wholeness, completeness, and perfection, and symbolized the self.

Mystery: For Jung, life was a great mystery, and he believed that humans know and understand very little of it. He never hesitated to say, "I don't know," and he always admitted when he came to the stop of his understanding.

Neurosis: Jung had a hunch that what passed for normality oftentimes was the very force that shattered the personality of the patient. He proposed that trying to be "normal" violates a person's inner nature and is itself a form of pathology. In the psychiatric infirmary, he wondered why psychiatrists were non interested in what their patients had to say.

Story: Jung concluded that every person has a story, and when derangement occurs, it is considering the personal story has been denied or rejected. Healing and integration come when the person discovers or rediscovers his or her own personal story.

Symbol: A symbol is a name, term, or picture that is familiar in daily life, simply for Jung it had other connotations too its conventional and obvious meaning. To Jung, a symbol implied something vague and partially unknown or hidden, and was never precisely defined. Dream symbols carried messages from the unconscious to the rational heed.

Unconscious: This basic tenet, as expressed past Jung, states that all products of the unconscious are symbolic and can be taken as guiding messages. Within this concept, at that place are 2 types:

1. Personal unconscious: This aspect of the psyche does not unremarkably enter an private'due south awareness, but, instead, appears in overt behaviour or in dreams.
2. Collective unconscious: This aspect of the unconscious manifests in universal themes that run through all human life. The idea of the collective unconscious assumes that the history of the human being race, dorsum to the about archaic times, lives on in all people.

Give-and-take association test: This is a inquiry technique that Jung used to explore the complexes in the personal unconscious. Information technology consisted of reading 100 words to someone, one at a time, and having the person answer quickly with a word of his or her own.

Psychological Types

According to Jung, people differ in certain bones ways, even though the instincts that drive u.s.a. are the aforementioned. Jung distinguished two general attitudes–introversion and extraversion–and iv functions–thinking, feeling, sensing, and intuiting:

1. Introvert: Inner-directed; needs privacy and infinite; chooses solitude to recover energy; oftentimes cogitating.
2. Extravert: Outer-directed; needs sociability; chooses people every bit a source of energy; often action-oriented.
3. Thinking function: Logical; sees crusade and effect relations; cool, distant, frank, and questioning.
4. Feeling function: Artistic, warm, intimate; has a sense of valuing positively or negatively. (Annotation that this is not the same equally emotion.)
5. Sensing function: Sensory; oriented toward the body and senses; detailed, concrete, and nowadays.
6. Intuitive: Sees many possibilities in situations; goes with hunches; impatient with earthy details; impractical; sometimes non present

The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) cess is a psychometric questionnaire designed to measure psychological preferences in how people perceive the world and make decisions. The original developers of the Myers-Briggs personality inventory were Katharine Cook Briggs and her daughter, Isabel Briggs-Myers (1980, 1995). Having studied the work of Jung, the female parent-daughter team turned their interest in human behaviour into a practical application of the theory of psychological types. They began creating the indicator during Earth War II, assertive that a cognition of personality preferences would assist women who were inbound the industrial workforce for the beginning time to identify the sort of wartime jobs that would be "most comfortable and effective."

The initial questionnaire became the Myers-Briggs Blazon Indicator (MBTI), starting time published in 1962 and emphasizing the value of naturally occurring differences (CAPT, 2012). These preferences were extrapolated from the typological theories proposed past Jung and first published in his 1921 book Psychological Types (Adler & Hull, 2014). Jung theorized that in that location are 4 principal psychological functions by which we feel the globe: sensation, intuition, feeling, and thinking, with ane of these four functions being dominant most of the time. The MBTI provides individuals with a measure of their ascendant preferences based on the Jungian functions.

Research Focus: The Theory of Buyer Behaviour

Jungian theory influenced a whole realm of social psychology called Consumer Behaviour (Howard & Sheth, 1968). Consumer behaviour is the study of individuals, groups, or organizations and the processes they utilize to select, secure, and dispose of products, services, experiences, or ideas to satisfy needs, and the impacts that these processes have on the consumer and society. Blending psychology, sociology, social anthropology, marketing, and economics, the study of consumer behaviour attempts to understand the controlling processes of buyers, such every bit how emotions touch buying behaviour (Effigy 2.8); it also studies characteristics of individual consumers, such as demographics, and behavioural variables and external influences, such as family, teaching, and civilisation, in an try to understand people's desires.

Figure ii.8 Neuromarketing.

The black box model (Sandhusen, 2000) captures thisinteraction of stimuli, consumer characteristics, decision processes, and consumer responses. Stimuli can exist experienced as interpersonal stimuli (between people) or intrapersonal stimuli (within people). The black box model is related to the black box theory of behaviourism, where the focus is set non on the processes inside a consumer, merely on the relation between the stimuli and the response of the consumer. The marketing stimuli are planned and candy by the companies, whereas the environmental stimuli are based on social, economic, political, and cultural circumstances of a club. The buyer'south black box contains the heir-apparent characteristics and the decision process, which determines the buyer'due south response (Table 2.1).

Tabular array ii.1 Ecology Factors and Heir-apparent's Black Box^[1]

[Skip Tabular array]
Environmental Factors		Buyer'due south Blackness Box		Buyer's Response
Marketing Stimuli	Environmental Stimuli	Buyer Characteristics	Design Process
product, cost, place, promotion.	economic, technological, political, cultural, demographic, natural.	attitudes, motivation, perceptions, personality, lifestyle, knowledge.	problem recognition, data search alternative evaluation, buy decision, post-purchase behaviour.	product pick, brand choice, dealer choice, purchase timing, buy, amount.

Dreaming and Psychodynamic Psychology

Freud showed a neat interest in the estimation of human being dreams, and his theory centred on the notion of repressed longing — the idea that dreaming allows the states to sort through unresolved, repressed wishes. Freud'south theory described dreams every bit having both latent and manifest content. Latent content relates to deep unconscious wishes or fantasies, while manifest content is superficial and meaningless. Manifest content ofttimes masks or obscures latent content.

Theories emerging from the piece of work of Freud include the following:

Threat-simulation theory suggests that dreaming should be seen equally an ancient biological defence mechanism. Dreams are thought to provide an evolutionary reward because of their capacity to repeatedly simulate potential threatening events. This process enhances the neurocognitive mechanisms required for efficient threat perception and abstention. During much of human evolution, physical and interpersonal threats were serious enough to advantage reproductive advantage to those who survived them. Therefore, dreaming evolved to replicate these threats and continually do dealing with them. This theory suggests that dreams serve the purpose of assuasive for the rehearsal of threatening scenarios in order to meliorate fix an individual for real-life threats.

Expectation fulfillment theory posits that dreaming serves to belch emotional arousals (all the same minor) that haven't been expressed during the twenty-four hour period. This do frees up space in the encephalon to deal with the emotional arousals of the side by side day and allows instinctive urges to stay intact. In consequence, the expectation is fulfilled (i.e., the action is completed) in the dream, but but in a metaphorical form and so that a false memory is non created. This theory explains why dreams are usually forgotten immediately later.

Other neurobiological theories also exist:

Activation-synthesis theory: One prominent neurobiological theory of dreaming is the activation-synthesis theory, which states that dreams don't actually mean anything. They are but electrical brain impulses that pull random thoughts and imagery from our memories. The theory posits that humans construct dream stories after they wake up, in a natural attempt to make sense of the nonsensical. Still, given the vast documentation of realistic aspects to human dreaming as well as indirect experimental show that other mammals (eastward.chiliad., cats) besides dream, evolutionary psychologists have theorized that dreaming does indeed serve a purpose.

Continual-activation theory: The continual-activation theory of dreaming proposes that dreaming is a result of brain activation and synthesis. Dreaming and REM sleep are simultaneously controlled by dissimilar brain mechanisms. The hypothesis states that the function of sleep is to process, encode, and transfer data from short-term memory to long-term memory through a procedure chosen "consolidation." Notwithstanding, there is non much evidence to back up consolidation as a theory. NREM (not-rapid eye motility or non-REM) sleep processes the conscious-related memory (declarative memory), and REM (rapid eye movement) slumber processes the unconscious-related memory (procedural retention).

The underlying assumption of continual-activation theory is that during REM slumber, the unconscious part of a brain is decorated processing procedural memory. Meanwhile, the level of activation in the conscious part of the brain descends to a very depression level every bit the inputs from the senses are basically disconnected. This triggers the "continual-activation" mechanism to generate a data stream from the memory stores to menstruation through to the witting function of the brain.

Nielsen and colleagues (2003) investigated the dimensional structure of dreams by administering the Typical Dreams Questionnaire (TDQ) to 1,181 outset-year academy students in iii Canadian cities. A contour of themes was constitute that varied niggling past historic period, gender, or region; nonetheless, differences that were identified correlated with developmental milestones, personality attributes, or sociocultural factors. Factor assay establish that women's dreams related mostly to negative factors (failure, loss of control, snakes/insects), while men'due south dreams related primarily to positive factors (magic/myth, alien life).

Inquiry Focus: Can Dreaming Enhance Problem Solving?

Stemming from Freudian and Jungian theories of dream states, researchers in Lancaster, Great britain (Sio & Ormerod, 2009; Sio Monaghan, & Ormerod, 2013) and in Alberta, Canada (Both, Needham, & Wood, 2004) explored the function of "incubation" in facilitating problem solving. Incubation is the concept of "sleeping on a problem," or disengaging from actively and consciously trying to solve a trouble, in order to permit, every bit the theory goes, the unconscious processes to work on the  problem. Incubation can have a variety of forms, such as taking a intermission, sleeping, or working on another kind of problem either more hard or less challenging. Findings propose that incubation can, indeed, have a positive impact on problem-solving outcomes. Interestingly, lower-level cerebral tasks (due east.grand.,  simple math or language tasks, vacuuming, putting items away) resulted in higher problem-solving outcomes than more challenging tasks (e.thousand., crossword puzzles, math problems). Educators accept besides found that taking active breaks increases children'due south creativity and problem-solving abilities in classroom settings.

There are several hypotheses that aim to explicate the conscious-unconscious effects on problem solving:

1. Spreading activation: When problem solvers undo from the problem-solving task, they naturally expose themselves to more information that can serve to inform the trouble-solving process. Solvers are sensitized to sure data and tin can do good from conceptual combination of disparate ideas related to the problem.
2. Selective forgetting: In one case disengaged from the problem-solving process, solvers are freer to let go of certain ideas or concepts that may exist inhibiting the problem-solving process, allowing a cleaner, fresher view of the problem and revealing clearer pathways to solution.
3. Problem restructuring: When problem solvers allow go of the initial problem, they are so freed to restructure or reorganize their representation of the problem and thereby capitalize on relevant information not previously noticed, switch strategies, or rearrange problem information in a manner more conducive to solution pathways.

The study of neural correlates of consciousness (NCC) seeks to link activeness within the brain to subjective human experiences in the physical world. Progress in neurophilosophy has come from focusing on the trunk rather than the listen (Squire, 2008). In this context, the neuronal correlates of consciousness may be viewed equally its causes, and consciousness may be thought of as a state-dependent property of some undefined complex, adaptive, and highly interconnected biological system. The NCC constitute the smallest set up of neural events and structures sufficient for a given witting percept or explicit memory (Figure 2.9).

Figure ii.9  The Neuronal Correlates of Consciousness.

In the investigation into the NCC, our capacity to manipulate visual percepts in fourth dimension and space has fabricated vision a focus of study. Psychologists have perfected a number of techniques in which the seemingly uncomplicated human relationship between a physical stimulus in the world and its associated principle in the bailiwick'due south heed is disturbed and therefore open for understanding. In this manner the neural mechanisms can be isolated, permitting visual consciousness to be tracked in the brain. In a perceptual illusion, the physical stimulus remains stock-still while the perception fluctuates. The best known example is the Necker Cube (Koch, 2004): the 12 lines in the cube tin can be perceived in one of two dissimilar ways in depth (Figure 2.x).

Figure 2.ten The Necker Cube.

A number of functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) experiments have identified the activity underlying visual consciousness in humans and demonstrated quite conclusively that action in various areas of the brain follows the mental perception and not the retinal stimulus (Rees & Frith, 2007), making it possible to link brain action with perception (Figure two.xi).

Effigy 2.11  fMRI scan.

Key Takeaways

• Psychodynamic psychology emphasizes the systematic study of the psychological forces that underlie human behaviour, feelings, and emotions and how they might chronicle to early experience.
• Consciousness is the awareness of the self in infinite and time and is defined as human awareness to both internal and external stimuli.
• Sigmund Freud divided human consciousness into three levels of awareness: the conscious, preconscious, and unconscious. Each of these levels corresponds and overlaps with his ideas of the id, ego, and superego.
• Most psychodynamic approaches use talk therapy to examine maladaptive functions that developed early in life and are, at least in part, unconscious.
• Carl Jung expanded upon Freud'south theories, introducing the concepts of the archetype, the commonage unconscious, and individuation.
• Freud's theory describes dreams as having both latent and manifest content. Latent content relates to deep unconscious wishes or fantasies while manifest content is superficial and meaningless.
• Unconscious processing includes several theories: threat simulation theory, expectation fulfillment theory, activation synthesis theory, continual activation theory.
• One application of unconscious processing includes incubation equally it relates to problem solving: the concept of "sleeping on a problem" or disengaging from actively and consciously trying to solve a problem in guild to allow one's unconscious processes to work on the  trouble.
• The study of neural correlates of consciousness seeks to link activity within the encephalon to subjective human experiences in the physical world.
• In a perceptual illusion, like the Necker Cube, the physical stimulus remains stock-still while the perception fluctuates, assuasive the neural mechanisms to exist isolated and permitting visual consciousness to be tracked in the brain.
• Activity in the encephalon can be studied and captured using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) scans.

Exercises and Critical Thinking

1. Utilize the principles of the psychodynamic school of idea to reverberate on a recent dream you experienced. What might the dream imply or stand for? Try to trace one of your qualities or characteristics to a prior experience or learning.
2. Jung has influenced a diversity of practices in psychology today including therapeutic and organizational. Can you identify other areas of society where "archetypes" may play a function?
3. Debate with your group the value or danger of "mass customization." What issues or controversies does the concept of customized marketing and product development pose?

Image Attributions

Figure two.v: Freud Jung in forepart of Clark Hall (http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b5/Hall_Freud_Jung_in_front_of_Clark.jpg) is in the public domain.

Figure 2.six: Visual representation of Freud'south id, ego and superego and the level of consciousness (http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Id_ego_superego.png) used under CC BY SA 3.0 license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/iii.0/act.en).

Figure 2.7: Graphical model of Carl Jung's theory – English language version past Andrzej Brodziak (http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Scheme-Jung.jpg) used under CC-BY-SA two.five Generic license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.v/deed.en).

Figure 2.viii: Neuromarketing schema by Benoit Rochon  (http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Neuromarketing_fr.svg) used under CC BY 3.0 license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/three.0/deed.en).

Effigy two.9: Neural Correlates Of Consciousness by Christof Koch (http://eatables.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Neural_Correlates_Of_Consciousness.jpg) used under CC Past SA iii.0 license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/deed.en).

Figure 2.x: Necker's cube, a type of optical illusion by Stevo-88 (http://eatables.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Necker%27s_cube.svg) is in the public domain.

Effigy 2.eleven: FMRI scan during working retention tasks by John Graner (http://eatables.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:FMRI_scan_during_working_memory_tasks.jpg) is in the public domain.

References

Adler, G., & Hull, R. F.C. (2014). Collected Works of C.Yard. Jung, Volume 6: Psychological Types. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

Both, L., Needham, D., & Wood, E. (2004). Examining Tasks that Facilitate the Experience of Incubation While Problem-Solving. Alberta Journal of Educational Inquiry, 50(1), 57–67.

Briggs-Myers, Isabel, & Myers, Peter B. (1980, 1995). Gifts differing: Agreement personality blazon. Mountain View, CA: Davies-Black Publishing.

CAPT (Centre for Applications of Psychological Type. (2012). The story of Isabel Briggs Myers. Retrieved from http://www.capt.org/mbti-cess/isabel-myers.htm

Chen, Songlin, Wang, Yue, & Tseng, Mitchell (2009). Mass Customization as a Collaborative Engineering Endeavor. International Journal of Collaborative Engineering science, one(two), 152–167.

Cramer, P. (2000). Defense mechanisms in psychology today. American Psychologist, 55, 637–646.

Howard, J., & Sheth, J.N. (1968). Theory of Buyer Beliefs. New York, NY: J. Wiley & Sons.

Jung, C. G. (1951). Aion: Researches into the Phenomenology of the Self (Nerveless Works Vol. 9 Part two). Princeton, Due north.J.: Bollingen.

Koch, Christof (2004). The quest for consciousness: a neurobiological approach. Englewood, US-CO: Roberts & Company Publishers.

McLuhan, Marshall, & Nevitt, Barrington. (1972). Take today: The executive as dropout. New York, NY: Harcourt Caryatid.

Nielsen, Tore A.,  Zadra, Antonio 50., Simard, Valérie Saucier, Sébastien Stenstrom, Philippe Smith, Carlyle, & Kuiken, Don (2003). The typical dreams of Canadian university students dreaming. Journal of the Association for the Report of Dreams, 13(4), 211–235.

Rees One thousand., & Frith C. (2007). Methodologies for identifying the neural correlates of consciousness. In: The Blackwell Companion to Consciousness. Velmans, Chiliad. & Schneider, S., (Eds.), pp. 553–66. Blackwell: Oxford, United kingdom.

Sandhusen, R. (2000). Marketing. New York, NY: Barron'south Educational Series.

Sio, U.N., & Ormerod, T.C. (2009). Does incubation enhance problem solving? A meta-analytic review. Psychological Bulletin,135(1), 94–120.

Sio U.Due north., Monaghan P., & Ormerod T. (2013). Sleep on it, but only if it is difficult: Effects of slumber on problem solving. Retention and Cognition, 41(2), 159–66.

Squire, Larry R. (2008). Fundamental neuroscience (third ed.). Waltham, Mass: Academic Press. p. 1256.

Westen, D. (1998). The scientific legacy of Sigmund Freud: Toward a psychodynamically informed psychological science. Psychological Bulletin, 124(iii), 333–371.

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